Psychological studies across the world of early childhood (age 3 to 6) have provided tangible evidence stating that the experiences of the child during this period will determine to a larger extent how he interacts with his environment and the people around him during his adult life. It determines the capabilities of an individual and also the confidence that the individual will have in him.
The impact is subconscious. The child feels that he is not capable of doing even “simple” things as feeding or dressing himself. Although he may not show his dislike at being helped every time he dresses himself or does any other activity, at the subconscious level, there remains a damaging sensation.
The best way is to be very patient with the child and make him do things himself. A golden middle could be achieved by making the children initiate the activity and then very gently taking over while conversing with the child and appreciating the manner in which he is doing it. At no point in time should the child feel that he is being stopped from doing what he had started.
This does not mean that parents let children do whatever they want to, but there should be a very gentle yet firm way of telling them that whatever they have done is not appreciated by the parent. So the child gets the message and he has the feeling that he being loved as he is.
Never praise children as being “good” when they do something that you like. Rather, appreciate the activity. Rather than labeling your child as good or bad, label the activity as good or bad.
Always ensure that there is a feeling of trust between the parents and the child. If parents try to keep a secret, howsoever small it might be, and if the child knows that something is being hidden from him/her, the child will slowly lose trust in the parents. Early childhood is a very critical age and children in this age need to be handled with utmost care lest they develop negative attitudes.
Note: Information given in this article was taken from a lecture on "Early Childhood Psychology" by child psychologist Ms. Shilpa Dhumal at Vidya Pratishthan's English Medium School, Baramati (Dist. Pune) Maharashtra, India on April 11, 2009.
The Age that Creates Self-Esteem
It is this age in which the child develops his self-esteem. This age also determines the child’s capability to learn new things, to explore his surroundings and to perform, physically, mentally and emotionally. Parents should be aware of this fact and make an active effort in developing in the child high self-esteem. This could be done by making the child feel capable and lovable.
Make the Child Feel Capable
The child feels capable when he develops his ability to do different things. A general observation is that parents feel that it would be a waste of time if they let their children put on their own clothes or shoes or eat their own food. It would be a lot easier and a lot less messy if they would do it for their children. That is an absolutely normal behavior on the part of the over-caring parent, but this has a negative impact on the child.
The impact is subconscious. The child feels that he is not capable of doing even “simple” things as feeding or dressing himself. Although he may not show his dislike at being helped every time he dresses himself or does any other activity, at the subconscious level, there remains a damaging sensation.
The best way is to be very patient with the child and make him do things himself. A golden middle could be achieved by making the children initiate the activity and then very gently taking over while conversing with the child and appreciating the manner in which he is doing it. At no point in time should the child feel that he is being stopped from doing what he had started.
Make the Child Feel Lovable
Parents will always believe that they love their children more than anything in the world and they always make them feel lovable. But they have to ask themselves, is their love conditional or unconditional? Most of the times their love for their children tends to be “conditional.” So often they say to their children that if you do this, you are a good boy/girl and if you do not do this or if you do that, you are a bad boy/girl. This means that they are placing a condition for their love. The child feels that his/her parent will love him/her only if he/she does a particular thing.
This does not mean that parents let children do whatever they want to, but there should be a very gentle yet firm way of telling them that whatever they have done is not appreciated by the parent. So the child gets the message and he has the feeling that he being loved as he is.
Never praise children as being “good” when they do something that you like. Rather, appreciate the activity. Rather than labeling your child as good or bad, label the activity as good or bad.
Always ensure that there is a feeling of trust between the parents and the child. If parents try to keep a secret, howsoever small it might be, and if the child knows that something is being hidden from him/her, the child will slowly lose trust in the parents. Early childhood is a very critical age and children in this age need to be handled with utmost care lest they develop negative attitudes.
Note: Information given in this article was taken from a lecture on "Early Childhood Psychology" by child psychologist Ms. Shilpa Dhumal at Vidya Pratishthan's English Medium School, Baramati (Dist. Pune) Maharashtra, India on April 11, 2009.
Political science is commonly divided into three distinct sub-disciplines which together constitute the field: Political Philosophy, Comparative Politics and International Relations. Political Philosophy is the reasoning for an absolute normative government, laws and similar questions and their distinctive characteristics. Comparative Politics is the science of comparison and teaching of different types of constitutions, political actors, legislature and associated fields, all of them from an intrastate perspective. International Relations deals with the interaction between nation-states as well as intergovernmental and transnational organizations.
Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in social research. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory, behavioral, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, and model building.
"As a discipline" political science, possibly like the social sciences as a whole, "lives on the fault line between the 'two cultures' in the academy, the sciences and the humanities." Thus, in some American colleges where there is no separate School or College of Arts and Sciences per se, political science may be a separate department housed as part of a division or school of Humanities or Liberal Arts. Whereas classical political philosophy is primarily defined by a concern for Hellenic and Enlightenment thought, political scientists are broadly marked by a greater concern for "modernity" and the contemporary nation state, and as such share a greater deal of terminology with sociologists (e.g. structure and agency).(from wikipedia)
Inventor of Political Science
Niccolo Machiavelli
Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy, in 1469. The son of a lawyer, Machiavelli received a solid humanistic education, studying the cultures of Ancient Greece and Rome. He was a sharp student, and a keen observer. During his twenties he worked in Rome for a Florentine banker, Lorenzo de’ Medici. The Medici family had ruled Florence since the 1430s. When Lorenzo died in 1492, his son was thought unfit to rule, and Florence formed a republic. Machiavelli became a central figure in the fledgling republic. He traveled abroad to France, Germany and Switzerland as a representative of Florence. He also organized an army for the new republic, modeling it after those of the ancient Roman Republic. However, his army was not as well trained as the original, and in 1512 the Medici family once again seized control of Florence.The Prince
In an attempt to win back the favor of the ruling Medici family, he penned his most famous piece, The Prince, in 1513. No doubt influenced by his travels abroad, Machiavelli set about to describe how leaders could best obtain and hold power. According to Machiavelli, a ruler should conduct himself in the following manner, in order to gain renown from his people he should:- maintain a regal bearing
- do great deeds
- encourage excellence
- foster peaceful progress
- respect local organizations
The most famous of Machiavelli’s ideas is undoubtedly the chapter entitled “On Cruelty and [compassion], and Whether it is Better to be Loved or Feared.” According to Machiavelli, it was always better to be feared. He also insisted if an end justified the means, then it was okay to do whatever was necessary to achieve those goals. Ruthlessness was a necessity, and honor a option.
The Prince failed to win Machiavelli favor with the Medici’s. He continued to write, producing several comedies, satires and poems. Much of his work relates to his thoughts on government, good and bad. His famous treatise - On The Art of War (1519-1520) - was read throughout western Europe. The play La Mandragola is thought to be a political satire of The Prince.
Machiavelli the Inventor of Political Science
Unlike many before him, Machiavelli provided examples to back up his arguments about government and leadership. He influenced other political scientists, including Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626), who praised Machiavelli for being such an honest creature, and Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), author of Leviathan (1651), who agreed with Machiavelli that all people were weak, and needed a strong ruler, else society run to complete decay.
Machiavelli’s work is still debated today by philosophers, students and theorists everywhere. His name has even taken on special meaning; “Machiavellian” is a term used to describe rulers who use deceit to impose their will.
Magazines didn't look like that until after World War II. The first magazines, in the 1700s, looked like....books.
Magazines began as genteel soapboxes from which literate men expounded their points of view, in essay or satire. Daniel Defoe started the first English magazine, The Review, during or just after his imprisonment for criticizing the Church of England. His purpose: a statesman or man of letters offers his comment, criticism and satire to influence public taste. The audience is composed of members of the same social scene that is the subject of most of the magazine's writing. Over the course of time, readers come to depend on the regularity of its point of view. The form of the Review set the form for British journals: four small pages, dense print, few illustrations (except some engraved borders and lettering) and most of the compelling force contained in the acerbic, airborne sarcasm of the text.
Joseph Addison, a high bred moralist and social critic, followed the form in his essays for his friend Richard Steele's Tatler. When the Tatler folded Addison created The Spectator, the most famous of the early British journals. It looked just like newspapers of the time: a daily 8 x 12-1/2" one-page paper, printed on both sides. Again tiny print, again no illustrations, and maybe half a column of classified ads. Historians consider it a magazine because instead of news, it printed comment. Each issue was written by entirely by Addison or Steele; occasionally by a friend.
Addison introduced the short informal essay and the short fiction story to English literature in his magazine. The Spectator lasted three years, but hundreds of others appeared to replace it. Colonial Americans established their magazines in the same style. Since Addison, prominent literary/art personalities use magazines as one of the most accessible vehicles of their point of view. They magazines they create are usually not popular, but can be influential.
In many ways, the magazines of comment of our time e simply continuing this tradition. There have also been soapbox-magazines for typographic and design theory -- Typographica, Push Pin Graphic -- which in their own way were as influential. The Dadaist magazines of the 1920s and 1930s combined the two forms, and ushered in machine-age modernism. It may be that the soapboxes of the Web could have an equally strong cultural influence, but it will take ten years or more to see.
Plus, until congress created second-class mail in 1879, the American Post Office only carried magazines for short distances, at high cost.
The R. Hoe and Co. rotary printing press fed three rolls of paper through the press at once, and made possible printing runs of as many copies as publishers wanted. At the same time, some publishers were trying to appeal to the new publicly-educated, industrial-urban lower-middle-class by decreasing their prices.
In 1883, the Scotland-born publisher S.S. McClure dropped the price of his general-interest McClure's magazine to only 15 cents. It was phenomenally successful. His rival publisher, Frank Munsey, lowered the price of Munsey's Magazine from 25c to 10c. Suddenly every major magazine cut its prices and upped its circulation. (With paper publications, the more copies printed, the cheaper each one cost to produce.) The average citizen had always been interested in literature and comment, but it had been too expensive before. The powerful and fashionable lost their control of the arts to public taste. Magazines ceased to be soapboxes, and became mass media instead.
S.S. McClure and Frank Munsey were the Rupert Murdoch (and, I suppose, Mort Zuckerman) of their day, but in a more primal, less sophisticated, fashion. Both were U.S.-based entrepreneurs who had grown up poor but McClure was an idealist with a seemingly heartfelt desire to reach many people. Munsey never espoused any goal except to make big money in the magazine trade (he succeeded). McClure's provided the earliest muckraking stories (Ida Tarbell on Standard Oil, for instance) and help develop documentary photography as an editorial device. Munsey's specialized in sentiment and western fiction, and was the first magazine to print female nudes (captioned as 'art') in America. Horatio Alger published his "rags-to-riches" stories in Munsey's.
Within five years after its birth, Munsey's lowest-common-denominator approach had brought it the largest circulation of any magazine in the world. Most of it still looked like a book. There were no headlines or continued stories, and pictures were confined to within columns. In the 1800s reading habits were different. You started at the very first page and read straight through, column by column, until the end. People didn't flick through or skim, and magazine layouts didn't encourage them to.
But ever increasing use of illustration and photography began to change these habits.
Pictures were attractive. Even the earliest printers put individually painted illustrations into their books, like the hand-lettered medieval manuscripts. Then printers used wood blocks, etched out by artists and fit into type racks. A printer would keep a set of blocks, and might use the same 'walled city' image to represent many different towns.
In the 1800s, illustrations were engraved on copper and wood, using a number of sophisticated new techniques (or so they seemed at the time) for simulating grey tones with only black ink. Most illustrations were etched with acid or by hand from pictures drawn onto metal or wood. The process was tedious but produced elaborately textured images, more beautiful than you'd expect from the few that are reproduced today.
Sketch artists were sent to cover events like news photographers are now. They sent back romanticized drawings; this dramatic and noble Civil War battle was probably gruesome and unpicturesque in reality. A good illustrated magazine like Harper's Monthly or Leslie's carried lots of small type. It took hours to read a magazine.
Photographers and editors had to devise precedents for using photography and words together in print. The first photo-interview, between French photographer Paul Nadar and 100 year old physicist M. E. Chevreul (see right), set a precedent for photo-captions later. The muckraking photographs of Jacob Riis is Mc Clure's influenced later social realism documents of the thirties. The combination of the photos, evolving styles of journalism, and the new technology of offset printing and color process created a new language of the printed page, a language which made high-power advertising layouts possible.
Magazines began as genteel soapboxes from which literate men expounded their points of view, in essay or satire. Daniel Defoe started the first English magazine, The Review, during or just after his imprisonment for criticizing the Church of England. His purpose: a statesman or man of letters offers his comment, criticism and satire to influence public taste. The audience is composed of members of the same social scene that is the subject of most of the magazine's writing. Over the course of time, readers come to depend on the regularity of its point of view. The form of the Review set the form for British journals: four small pages, dense print, few illustrations (except some engraved borders and lettering) and most of the compelling force contained in the acerbic, airborne sarcasm of the text.
Joseph Addison, a high bred moralist and social critic, followed the form in his essays for his friend Richard Steele's Tatler. When the Tatler folded Addison created The Spectator, the most famous of the early British journals. It looked just like newspapers of the time: a daily 8 x 12-1/2" one-page paper, printed on both sides. Again tiny print, again no illustrations, and maybe half a column of classified ads. Historians consider it a magazine because instead of news, it printed comment. Each issue was written by entirely by Addison or Steele; occasionally by a friend.
Addison introduced the short informal essay and the short fiction story to English literature in his magazine. The Spectator lasted three years, but hundreds of others appeared to replace it. Colonial Americans established their magazines in the same style. Since Addison, prominent literary/art personalities use magazines as one of the most accessible vehicles of their point of view. They magazines they create are usually not popular, but can be influential.
In many ways, the magazines of comment of our time e simply continuing this tradition. There have also been soapbox-magazines for typographic and design theory -- Typographica, Push Pin Graphic -- which in their own way were as influential. The Dadaist magazines of the 1920s and 1930s combined the two forms, and ushered in machine-age modernism. It may be that the soapboxes of the Web could have an equally strong cultural influence, but it will take ten years or more to see.
1883: The birth of mass media
Until the 1880s, only the upper classes read magazines. They were small soft cover books, carrying stories that appealed to a classically-educated, elite readership that identified with Europe. The poorfolk read newspapers and weekly tabloids. Magazines were expensive, partly because printing technology limited even the most popular to a run of 100,000 copies; it simply took too long to push any more paper through a press.Plus, until congress created second-class mail in 1879, the American Post Office only carried magazines for short distances, at high cost.
The R. Hoe and Co. rotary printing press fed three rolls of paper through the press at once, and made possible printing runs of as many copies as publishers wanted. At the same time, some publishers were trying to appeal to the new publicly-educated, industrial-urban lower-middle-class by decreasing their prices.
In 1883, the Scotland-born publisher S.S. McClure dropped the price of his general-interest McClure's magazine to only 15 cents. It was phenomenally successful. His rival publisher, Frank Munsey, lowered the price of Munsey's Magazine from 25c to 10c. Suddenly every major magazine cut its prices and upped its circulation. (With paper publications, the more copies printed, the cheaper each one cost to produce.) The average citizen had always been interested in literature and comment, but it had been too expensive before. The powerful and fashionable lost their control of the arts to public taste. Magazines ceased to be soapboxes, and became mass media instead.
Within five years after its birth, Munsey's lowest-common-denominator approach had brought it the largest circulation of any magazine in the world. Most of it still looked like a book. There were no headlines or continued stories, and pictures were confined to within columns. In the 1800s reading habits were different. You started at the very first page and read straight through, column by column, until the end. People didn't flick through or skim, and magazine layouts didn't encourage them to.
But ever increasing use of illustration and photography began to change these habits.
1890-1910 Photography changes the format
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Early photographs had to be copied by hand, like this flood scene. Magazines hired photographers to shoot pictures and engravers to etch them. Every photo-technologist sought a method of printing pages directly from photographs. Some succeeded, but their methods couldn't combine photos easily with type. These methods included variations of lithography; they produced high quality reproduction plates which were pasted into books and fine art magazines. |
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In the 1800s, illustrations were engraved on copper and wood, using a number of sophisticated new techniques (or so they seemed at the time) for simulating grey tones with only black ink. Most illustrations were etched with acid or by hand from pictures drawn onto metal or wood. The process was tedious but produced elaborately textured images, more beautiful than you'd expect from the few that are reproduced today.
Sketch artists were sent to cover events like news photographers are now. They sent back romanticized drawings; this dramatic and noble Civil War battle was probably gruesome and unpicturesque in reality. A good illustrated magazine like Harper's Monthly or Leslie's carried lots of small type. It took hours to read a magazine.
Photographers and editors had to devise precedents for using photography and words together in print. The first photo-interview, between French photographer Paul Nadar and 100 year old physicist M. E. Chevreul (see right), set a precedent for photo-captions later. The muckraking photographs of Jacob Riis is Mc Clure's influenced later social realism documents of the thirties. The combination of the photos, evolving styles of journalism, and the new technology of offset printing and color process created a new language of the printed page, a language which made high-power advertising layouts possible.
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The first halftones: "A Scene in Shanty-Town." The tones of photo (above) were filtered through a screen of black and white lines or dots, which gave the illusion of shades of grey. Photographs, more 'realistic' than drawings, could now be reproduced on a page with type with far greater speed and choice. Editors could select one from a number of photographs; they didn't have to trust the sketch artist's rendition. Photographs immediately dominated the news. But the halftone process itself altered the feeling of the original photographs; most people did not realize until later that the photo and printing processes distorted reality as much as the old sketch artists. |
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